Nervous System and Brain Stem

Biopsychology A specialty that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and amiable work ones. Evolution The gradual process of biological change that occurs in a species as it adapts to its surroundings new generations change as they adapt to ever-changing environments Evolution has fundament exclusivelyy shape psychological processes beca lend oneself it favors genetic variations that produce adaptive behavior Charles DarwinWondered if animals were related and if all(prenominal)(prenominal) creations, even humans, could sh be a prevalent ancestry made the controversial case for the evolution of lifeNatural selectionThe driving force behind evolution, the fittest organisms argon selected by the environment, the best adapted leave flourish and the least adapted will die out. Darwin never said humans came from monkeys, but that they both had a common ancestor Genetics and inheritance Genotype Genetic MakeupPhenotype Physical and behavioral characteristics (observable char acteristics) not all biological, also can be changed by nutrition, disease, stress, and poor medical exam c ar causing birth defects Genome Set of genetic instruction contained within a cell DNAA complex molecule that stores biological information Genes The words that gear up up the instruction manual (genome) ChromosomesTightly coiled anatomical structures in which genes are organized, consist of DNA Nucleotides letters that form genes, in that location are 4Sex chromosomes The X and Y chromosomes that de margeine physical sex characteristics XX-female XY-male , fathers determine sex Genes influence our psychological characteristicsNever attribute psychological characteristics to genetics al atomic number 53, even identical agree Race and human variations Certain features of skin color and former(a) physical characteristics are common among people who trace their ancestry to the same part of the ball tropical ancestry have darker skin to protect them from the sun, and thinl yer skin for less sunny places There are no genetic differences for races, race is to a greater extent of a socially defined term Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis Testing fetus at a very oung age to ensure a genetically healthy fetus Some of these clinics also offer gender selection and savior siblings How does the personate communicate internally?The sickening system reacts first intensify your marrow rate and tense your muscles for action Endocrine system sends follow-up messagessend hormones which also accelerate heart and tense muscles they work unitedly in stressful and happier situations and even during low arousal states the mavin is the chief that manages the cooperation of the head-in-the-clouds and endocrine systemsThe idea coordinates the torsos 2 communication systems, the nervous and endocrine, which use similar chemic processes to communicate with targets throughout the body Neuron (nerve cell) cell that receives and transmits information to other cells of the body, bundles are called nerves Sensory neuron (afferent neurons) A cell that carries messages towards the heading from understanding receptors Motor neuron (efferent neurons) A cell that carries messages a office from the brain to the muscles and glandsInterneurons A cell that relays messages between nerve cells, especially in the brain and spinal pile Dendrites Branched personas that extend outward from the cell body and carries information into the neuron Soma part of the cell containing the nucleus or cell body, houses chromosomes Axon An extending fiber that conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons Resting potential The electrical charge of the axon in its in sprightly state, when neuron is ready to fireAction potential When the neuron fires due to a change in electrical charge across the cell membrane of axon All or none principle action potential in the axon occurs either get laidly or not at all when many neurons fire too easily the result can be epileptic seizure Synapsegap that serves as a communications link between neurons or between neurons and muscles or glands they serve Terminal buttonsTiny bulb wish structures at the end of the axon that carry the message into the synapse Synaptic transmission The relaying of information across the synapse Neurotransmitter Chemical messenger that relays neural messages across the synapse, many are also hormones ReuptakeThe process by which un employ neurotransmitters are drawn back into the vesicles of their originating neuron 7 important neurotransmittersDopamineProduces feeling of pleasure or reward, imbalances cause schizophrenia and Parkinson, cocaine, amphatamine, and alcohol affect the action of this transmitter SerotoninRegulates, sleep, dreams, mood, hurt, appetite, sex drive, imbalances cause depression, anxiety, OCD, Prozac and LSD affect the action of this transmitter Norepinnephrinecontrols heart rate, sleep, stress, sexual responsiveness, appetite, imbalances cause h igh relationship pressure, depression, Tricyclic, anti depressants, and beta blockers affect the action of this transmitter Acetycholine complex in learning and memory, imbalances cause muscular overthrows, alzheimers, nicotine, black widow spider venom, botulism toxin, barbiturates affect the action of this transmitterGABAInhibitory transmitter, inbalances cause anxiety and epilepsy, minor tranquilizers and alcohol affect the action of this transmitter GlutamateExcitatory transmitter, excess anaesthetize of glutamate causes brain damage after stroke, PCP affects the action of this transmitter EndorphinsPleasurable sensations and control of pain, imbalances come from opiate addiction, opiates like morphine, heroin, and methadone effect the action of this transmitter malleability the nervous systems ability to change or adapt as a result of an experience or physical damage plasticity can not compensate for extensive injurys just as paralyzed individuals may implant computer chip s in the brain to restore some forms of controlGlial cells A cell that provides structural support for neurons, also provide the myelin sheath of the axon for some neurons nervous system Network of neurons in the body, including the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and their subdivisions Central nervous systembrain and spinal cord Reflexsimple unlearned response triggered by stimuli done by spinal cord ContralateralEach side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body Peripheral Nervous systemConnects the central nervous system with the rest of the body (somatic and autonomic) Somatic nervous system Carries sensory(prenominal) information to the brain and voluntary messages to the musclesAutonomic nervous system Sends communications between the brain and the internal organs and glands tender-hearted division ends messages to internal organs and glands that help us respond to stressful or emergency situations Parasympathetic monitors the routin e operations of the internal organs and returns body to calmer functioning after arousal by the sympathetic divisionThe endocrine system The hormone system, chemic messenger system including pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes in a crisis this system releases epinephrin or adrenalin sustaining the bodies fight or f clear up reaction Hormones chemical messengers used by the endocrine system and the nervous systemHormonal functions of major endocrine glands front Pituitary ovaries and testes, breast milk doing, metabolism, reactions to stress Posterior Pituitary conservation of water in the body, breast milk secretion, uterus contractions Thyroid metabolism, physical harvest and development Parathyroid calcium aims in the body Pancreas glucose (sugar) metabolismAdrenal glands fight or flight response, metabolism, sexual desire (especially in women) Ovaries development of female sexual characteristics, productionion of eggs or ova Testes development of ma le sexual characteristics, sperm production, sexual desire in men Pituitary gland the master gland that oversees all these endocrine responses Agonists drugs or other chemicals that enhance or mimic the effects of neurotransmitters antagonists drugs or other chemicals that inhibit the effects of neurotransmittersNeural pathways bundles of nerve cells that follow generally the same despatch and employ the same neurotransmitter How does the brain produce behavior and psychological processes? Thoughts and feelings originate from the brain (love doesnt come from the heart) brain is a collection of distinct modules that work together like the components of a computer the brain is composed of many delimitated modules that work together to create mind and behavior EEG(Electroencephalograph)A device for arrangement brain waves, typically by electrodes places on the scalp. The recording is an EEG Can reveal abnormal waves which cause epilepsy not very preciseWilder Pen field mapped the b rain with electric probes which showed him that the brains surface had distinct expanses with distinct functions Brain Scans help neurosurgeons to locate abnormalities such as tumors or stroke related damage without opening the skull CT(computerized tomography)uses x-rays interpreted of the brain at different angles and then combined into an image PET(positron emission tomography)Imaging technique that relies on the detection of radioactive sugar consumed by active brain cellsMRI(magnetic resonance imaging) Imaging technique that relies on cells responses in a high-intensity magnetic field fMRI(functional magnetic resonance imaging)form of MRI that records brain structure and activity PET and fMRI show which parts of the brain are active during a particular task MRI ecvelsat distinguishing the fine details of brain structures non of these can detect processes that occur only briefly (shift in attention, startle response) no scanning technique gives biopsychologists a perfectly clea r view of all of the brains activity Three layers of the brain Brain stem the most primitive of the brains three major layers, includes medulla, pons, and reticular formation medullaControls eupnoeic and heart ratePonsRegulates brain activity during sleep or dreaming Reticular formationkeeps the brain alert and attentive to new stimulation Limbic systemmiddle layer, involved in emotion and memory, includes thee hippocampus,amygdalaa, hypothalamus, and some pleasure centers HippocampusEstablishes long term memories amydalamemory and emotion, particularly dread and aggression HypothalamusBrains blood testing lab, constantly monitors blood to determine condition of the bodThalamus brains central relay station, all messages that enter or exit the brain go through the thalamus controls sleep and awake states of disposition cerebrum cerebellumthe niggling brain attached to the brain stem, responsible for oordinated movements cerebral hemisphereslarge symmetrical halves of the brain lo cated atop the brain stem cerebral cortexThin white-haired(a) matter covering the cerebral hemispheres, carries on major portion of higher mental processes like thinking and perceiving corpus callosum the band of nerve cells connecting and enabling communication between the two cerebral hemispheresThe frontal lobescortical regions at the front of the brain especially involved in movement and in thinking beat back cortex A narrow vertical strip of cortex in the frontal lobes, controls voluntary motor movement Mirror neuronA trend of neuron that fires in response to mirroring observation of another persons actions or emotions The left frontal lobes production of speechThe parietal lobesInvolved in touch sensation and perceiving spacial relationships Somatosensory cortex A strip of the parietal lobe involved in sensations of touch The temporal lobesCortical lobes that process hearing, including speech, involved in storing long term memories Occipital lobes The cortical regions that house the optic cortex Visual cortex The visual processing area of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes companionship Cortex Critical regions throughout the brain that combine information from various other parts of the brainCerebral DominanceThe tendency of each brain hemisphere to utilize control over different functions, such as oral communication or perception of spatial relationships The left side is more active in language and speech the right side is for visual and spatial and interprets others emotional responses and their nonverbal communication signals the right frontal lobes control the negative emotions such as fear and anger the left frontal lobes control the positive emotions such as joy cerebral dominance exemplars are not always the same from one person to another men on average have slightly larger brains, thought to be part of body size and not untold other importance CH 3Sensation The process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, sight, taste, touch, or smell experience A mental process that elaborates and assigns meaning to the incoming sensory patterns The brain common senses the world indirectly because the sense organs convert stimulation into the language of the nervous system (neural messages) 3 attributes common to all senses transduction-process that converts information carried by the stimulus , such as light or sound waves, into the form of neural messages sensory adaption-loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a art object thresholds bsolute threshold-minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a sensory experience (how soft can euphony be and still be heard) if it is above your thresholds, you sense it varies from person to person and varies in an individual depending on mental alertness and physical condition difference threshold (JND)-minimum amount by which a stimulus can be changed and the difference be detected fractional the epoch large when the stimulus intensity is high and small when low Webers law The size of the JND is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus We are create to detect changes in stimulation and relationships among stimuli Signal detection theory Theory that states that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector.Sensory Adaptation Loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while (adjusting to the temperature of a cold pool) The sense all operate in much the same way, but each extracts different information and sends it to its own specialized processing region in the brain Vision RetinaThe thin light- nociceptive layer at the back of the eyeball. The retina contains millions of photoreceptor and other nerve cells the retina is where the transduction of light into neural signals occurs Photoreceptors Light sensitive cells (neurons) in the retina that concert light energy to neural impulses, these receptors are as far as light gets into the visual system. Rods Photoreceptors in the retina sensitive to dark lighting but not to colorCones photoreceptor in the retina sensitive to colourise but not dim light Fovea-tiny area of sharpest vision in the retina ipolar cells-collect impulses from photoreceptors and send them to the ganglion cells optic nerve-the bundle of neurons that caries visual information from the retina to the brain blind spot- the point where the optic nerve exits the eye and there are no photoreceptors, anything in this area cannot be seen visual cortex creates visual images from the information received from the eyes in this cortex, brain turns neural impulses into visual sensations of color, form, boundary, and movement brightness- A sensation caused by intensity(amplitude) of light waves color-(hue) not a property of things in the outside(a) world , a psychological sensation created in the bra in from information from the eyes from the wavelength of visual lightElectromagnetic spectrum-the entire range of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves, x rays, microwaves, and visible light visible spectrum-the tiny part of electromagnetic spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive, may be different from our own trichromatic theory-the idea that colors are sensed by three different types of cones sensitive to light in the red blue and green wavelengths, this theory explains color processing in the cones of the retina opponent-process theory-the idea that cells in the visual system process colors in complementary pairs, such as red or green , yellow or blue, this theory explains color sensation from the bipolar cells onward in the visual system afterimages-sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed, most are negative after images, which appear in reversed colors color blindness-genetic cark that prevents an individual from discriminating certain colors, most common form is red green color blindnessHearing Frequency-highness or lowness of sound, pitch amplitude-the physical strength of a wave. Height of the wave , when turning down vol, your turning down amplitude, loudness timbre-complex quality of a sound wave, helps you distinguish different voices how we hear sound waves are relayed to the inner ear, vibrating waves make their way through the ear canal to the ear drum or tympanic membrane, vibrates middle ear, sends to cochlea cochlea-main organ of hearing focuses he vibrations on the basilar membrane basilar membrane converts vibrations into neural messages neural messages travel to the auditory cortex in the brain Hearing loss-from damage of the hair cells in the cochlea Vision-stimulus is light waves, receptor is rods and conesHearing-stimulus is sound waves, receptor is hair cells in basilar membrane Skin senses-stimulus is external contact, receptor is nerve endings in skin Smell-stimulus is quicksilver(a) substances, receptor is hair cells in olfactory epithelium Taste-stimulus is soluble substances, receptor is taste buds on tongue Pain- stimulus is extreme stimuli, receptors are pain receptors Kinesthatic and vestibular senses-stimulus is body position, movement and balance, receptors are hair cells in semicircular canals and neurons connected to muscles joints and tendons Vestibular senses-the sense of body orientation with respect to gravity, associated with inner ear and in fact is carried to the brain on a Branch of the auditory nerve Kinesthetic sense-the sense of body position and movement of body parts intercourse to each otherSmell olfaction-sense of smell pheromones-chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of their species. Often used by animals as sexual attractants, unclear if humans use them Taste Gustation-the sense of tasteSkin senses sensory system for processing touch, warmth, cold, texture, and pain synesthesia-the mixing of sensations across sensory modalitie s, as in tasting shapes or seeing colors associated with numbers tincture limbs-sensations experienced by people who have lost a limb coming from the missing body part Gate control theory-an explanation for pain control that proposes we have a neural gate that can, under some circumstances, block incoming pain signals if you experience pain you can take drugs like aspirin or you can get morphine which suppresses the pain messages in the spinal cord placebo-appears to be a drug, but is not (sugar pill) placebo effect-a response to a placebo caused by the belief that it is a real drug Perception gives meaning to sensation, so perception produces an interpretation of the world, not a perfect representation of itPercept The meaning product of perception, often an image that has been associated with concepts, memories of events, emotions, and motives What pathway-A neural pathway, projecting from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe, which involves identifying objects where pa thway-A neural pathway the projects visual information to the parietal lobe, responsible for hole objects in space blindsight-being conscious of information in the what pathway but not necessarily in the where pathway feature detectors-cells in the cortex that specialize in extracting certain features of a stimulus binding problemhow the brain combines the results from many senses into a single percept top-down process memories and ancient experiences in our brain tell perception bottom up process the sensed characteristics in the stimuli exert strong influence on our perceptions perceptual constancy-the ability to secernate the same object as remaining constant under different conditions, such as distance or location inattentional blindness-a failure to notice changes occurring in ones visual field, caused by narrowing the focus of ones attention change blindness-failure to notice that a visual scene has changed from the way it had appeared previously, requires comparing a scene to one from the past illusion-incorrect perception of a stimulus pattern especially one that fools others ambiguous figures-images that can be interpreted in more than one way.No right way to see an ambiguous figure Gestalt psychology believed that much of perception is shaped by innate factors built into the brain figure- a part of a pattern that stands out against the ground ground-part of a pattern that does not command attention-background closure-gestalt principle that identifies the tendency to fill in gaps in figures and to see incomplete figures as complete Laws of perceptual grouping-the gestalt principles of similarity, proximity, continuity, and common fate.Suggest how our brains prefer to group stimulus elements together to form a percept Law of similarity-gestalt principle, we tend to group similar objects together in out perceptions Law of proximity-gestalt principle, we tend to group objects together when they are near each other Law of continuity-gestalt principle, we prefer perceptions of connected and continuous figures to disconnected and at sea ones Law of common fate-gestalt principle, we tend to group similar objects together that share a common motion of destination Law ofPragnanz- Gestalt principle, the simplest organization, requiring the least cognitive effect, will emerge as a figure, full figures such as a closed circle Learning based inference- the view that perception is primarily shaped by learning rather by innate factors perceptual set-readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context somebody afraid interprets an unfamiliar sound as a threat, set of words, word missing binocular cues-information taken in by both eyes that acquired immune deficiency syndrome in depth perception, including binocular convergence and retinal disparity Monocular cues-information about depth that relies on the input of just one eye and includes relative size, light and shadow, relative motion and atmospheric pressure CH 8Cognitive Neuro science-An interdisciplinary field involving cognitive psychology, neurology, biology, computer science, linguistics, and other specialists who are interested in the connection between mental processes and the brain Nonconscious process-Any brain process that does not involve conscious processing, including both preconscious memories and unconscious(p) processes can perform many jobs at the same time (walk, chew gum, breath) Consciousness-The process by which the brain creates mental model of our experience, most common soul occurs during wakefulness, although there can be altered states Attention- a process by which sentience focuses on a single item of chunk in working memory Tools for studying brain- fMRI, EEG, PET Freuds levels of consciousnessPreconscious- A special unconscious storehouse for information no currently in conscious but readily available to the conscious (like your phone number) The unconscious-A part of the mind that processes below the level or knowingness, emotional memories, desires, and feelings that would be threatening if brought back to consciousness James stream of consciousness-walking consciousness is like a flowing stream carrying ever changing sensations, perceptions, thoughts, memories, feelings, and desires, this stream includes awareness of ourselves and of stimulation from our environment, can also include physical sensations from within like hunger or pain James said consciousness has 2 levels an area of focus for what we are focusing our attention on, and a peripheral conscious to encompass the feelings that give meaning to our focus The computer metaphor-likens consciousness to the information and images that appear on a computer screen nonconscious is the electronic activity behind the scene, which most of the time operates in parallel with consciousness Three important functions of the consciousnessConsciousness restricts our attention-(restriction) because it processes information serially, it limits what you notic e and think about,keeps your brain from being overwhelmed by stimulation cannot read while listening to music consciousness provides a mental meeting place-(combination) meeting place where sensation can combine with memory, emotions, motives, and a host of other psychological processes (perception) consciousness allows us to create a mental model of the world-(manipulation) a model we can manipulate in our minds, we dont just operate in the moment, we make a model that draws on memory and brings the past and the future into awareness.Coma-An unconscious state, during which a person lacks the normal cycles of sleep and wakefulness, usually only lasts a few days (between vegetative and minimally conscious states) Consciousness fluctuates in cycles that correspond to our biological rhythms and to patterns of stimulation in our environmental Daydreaming-A common (and quite normal) variation of consciousness in which attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies and away from the immediate situation daydreaming is automatic when we are in a restful state or not focused on something Circadian Rhythms-A pattern that repeats every 24 hours such as sleep and wakefulness cycle, jet lag Main Events of sleep rapid eye movement sleep sleep-stage that occurs approximately every 90 minutes, marked by bursts of rapid eye movement occurring under closed eye lids each REM period gets womb-to-tomb and longer Non-REM-the recurring periods, mainly associated with the deeper state of sleep, when a sleeper is not showing rapid eye movements Sleep paralysis- A condition in which a sleeper is unable to move any of the voluntary muscles except the eyes (normally occurs during REM) Stages of sleep Stage 1Slower theta waves, faster beta wavesStage 2 concise burst of fast electrical activity that reliably signal the end of stage 1 Stage 3 &4heart rate and breathing slow down , beta brain waves slow, delta waves appear DEEPEST sleep in stage 4 as stage 4 ends sleeper climbs back up the stages backwards REM sleep fast beta waves, rapid eye movement, after REM sleeper slips back into stage 2 REM rebound- A condition of increased REM sleep caused by REM sleep deprivation Sleep debt-A sleep deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep required for optimal functioning Isrealites interpreted dreams as messages from the gods Egyptians tried to influence dreams by sleeping in temples dedicated to the god of dreaming Chinese are scared to dream because they think the soul wanders outside the body Freuds theory of dreams manifest content-the story line of a dream, taken at face value without interpretation latent content- the symbolic meaning or objects and events in a dream Activation synthesis theory- the theory that dreams begin with haphazard electrical activation coming from the brain stem.The storyline of dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of this random activity Insomnia- involving insufficient sleep, the inability to fall hiber nating(prenominal) quickly, frequent arousals, or early awakenings Sleep Apnea- A respiratory disorder in which the person intermittently stops breathing many times while asleep Night terrors-deep sleep episodes that seem to produce terror, what made the person scared is usually forgotten on awakening, usually found in children narcolepsy-a disorder of REM sleep, involving sleep-onset periods in sudden daytime REM-sleep attacks An altered state of consciousness occurs when some aspect of normal consciousness is modified by mental, behavioral, or chemical means Hypnosis-A state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation, heightened suggestibility, and focused attention Hypnotizability- susceptibility measured by a persons responsiveness to standardized suggestions hypnosis an be used for dental and medical uses, psychological treatmentMeditation-A state of consciousness often induces by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions, and minimizing external sti mulation Psychoactive drug-chemical that affects mental processes and behavior by its effect on the brain Hallucinogen-a drug that creates hallucinations or alters perception of the external environment and inner awareness Opiates-Highly addictive drug, derived from opium, that can produce a profound sense of sell being and has strong pain relieving properties Depressant-drug that slows down mental and physical activity by inhibiting transmission of nerve impulses in the brain (alcohol, barbiturates) Stimulants-speed up brain and mental and physical responses (cocain, amphetamine, nicotine, caffeine)General Anesthetic-substance that suppresses consciousness and awareness of pain, some produce sedation and immobility Tolerance-the reduces intensity level a drug has after repeated use psychical dependence-the body adjusts to and comes to need and drug for every day functioning addiction- a person continues to use a drug despite its adverse effects and many attempts to stop withdrawal -A pattern of uncomfortable or painful physical symptoms and cravings experienced by the exploiter when the level of drug is decreased or the drug is eliminated psychological dependency-a desire to obtain or use a drug, even though there is no physical dependence